This study aimed to evaluate the application of the problem-based learning (PBL) teaching method in emergency ultrasound training, specifically its effect on improving rapid diagnostic ability and learning outcomes. From May 2020 to May 2025, 40 emergency ultrasound resident doctors were randomly selected and divided into a control group (n = 20, receiving conventional teaching) and an observation group (n = 20, receiving PBL teaching). After training, the observation group scored significantly higher than the control group in both rapid diagnostic ability for emergency ultrasound (including static image/dynamic video interpretation, standard section acquisition, rapid screening process and timeliness, quality of written diagnostic reports, and clinical decision support) and learning effect scores (learning interest, learning initiative, and self-confidence), with all differences showing statistical significance (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the application of the PBL teaching method in emergency ultrasound training for resident doctors effectively enhances their rapid diagnostic ability and learning outcomes.